History through Oral Interviews Essay

When it comes to stories about the sixties, we have one family friend that we rely on. Uncle Jim, or simply Jim to my parents, is a guy with a lot of stories about the past. The topic I asked him to share was about the growth of feminism in the country. According to him, women were treated very differently back then. Very few women were employed, doing the same job that of a man, with most of the females confined in their houses doing household chores. He shared that the growth of feminism at that time came as a shock to most of the people back then. Women started wanting to get recognized, demanding equal opportunities as men. If we look at it in today’s perspective, it would be right for women to demand equal treatment, but back then, it was really different. He mentioned that it was quite awkward working with them, but as more and more women started doing men’s work, the people got used to it. This personal experience account somehow differs from the textbook’s treatment. First of all, it is personal, wherein we have to consider the point of view of Uncle Jim, and that his story may have biases. The textbook offers a more general view of the topic, while the personal account focused more on a specific aspect, and that is about the effect of growing feminism in the workplace. Oral histories give a more colorful angle in the story, like how the men felt awkward working with women in some jobs back then. Also, oral histories are more interesting, though may not be that much informative as compared to textbooks. Again, its because of the perspective of person being considered in conveying events and other information.

College Strictly Essay

The learned philosopher Aristotle maintains that the pursuit of learning belongs at the heart of what is means to be human. By nature, he states, all men desire to know, inasmuch as all men seek to understand all things on account of being awed (cited in Marias, 1967, p. 63) But what is especially onerous about the acquisition of knowledge is that it is an endeavor that comes not without a price – one has to accede to the rigors of correct logic, as indeed follow the standards of correct methodologies. For true knowledge does not lie on knowing why things are what they are, it is essentially about learning to weed the straws of falsity from the prolific seeds of truthfulness. If learning institutions – or a certain college, as a way to concretely cite the case in point – exist on account of the noble pursuit of higher learning, then it is only reasonable that, by right of mere logic, they be made to comply with their mandated educational standards, whose controlling vision seeks nothing less than the attainment of human excellence in all fields. For such reason, it has to be argued that the need to enforce, in a manner being rigorous but reasonable, educational standards to all learning institutions is certainly a case whose necessity is beyond question. In the first place, one needs to appreciate the fact that the end for which learning institutions are established rests on the reasoned premise that they exist at the service of higher learning. When an institution starts to lose sight of this sacred goal, it compromises altogether the very reason why it should, in the very first place, exist. For instance, when a college professor starts to yield to the temptation of lowering the bar of expectation and truncating the amount of demands relative to his or her course, in the hope of gaining approval from a majority of his or her students, it frustrates the noble goal of learning just the same. It, as a consequence, frustrates too the foundational premise that gives reason to a college’s continued operation. Moreover, it has to be acknowledged that complying with educational standards is, ultimately, a service to the larger society. An institution that strictly enforces its educational standard gives the society a select group of people who not only are experts in their respective fields, but also – more importantly so – are learned individuals unto whom the foundation of a great society rests. Conversely, a college that does not strictly comply with the stipulations of its mandated standard can produce students who, after being allowed to take education lightly, end up ill-trained and unprepared for their greater calling in the world. The very reason why students go to school is precisely to learn, and not to have fun; and this, the learning institution has to remember, must be observed even when it means giving the students reasons to work for attaining a certain expertise in their craft, all in the service of the society’s greater good. Work Cited Marias, J. (1967). History of Philosophy. New York, Dover Publications, Incorporated.

President Obama visit Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

President Obama visit - Essay Example This would be of great help especially to the people with low incomes, since they would be reduced of the burden of having to repay the loan in full. The president also wanted to get to the students’ voting alliance that was responsible for his winning back in 2008, and told them that he needed their votes again in 2012 elections. The officials of the White House alleged that those students who had one or more federal loans would be allowed to merge their debts, which would reduce interest rates by half of the percentage point. Obama said that this plan was supposed to get rid of those federal subsidies that were taken to the private banks after the loans are merged, and this would help in improving the economy. He believed that if a big percentage of people’s paycheck is used to repay the loans instead of doing other things, it would affect the economy. This would be a great burden especially to those families who are in the middle-class; since their source of income is mainly from the salaries they get from their jobs. A big percentage of people’s income should help people to improve their businesses, so that the business can grow, and this would help improve the country’s economy. This would ensure that the future generations did not suffer economically due to insufficient funds. The president questioned Republicans who were in the congress for having blocked the job bill he had put in place. He said that those individuals who were jobless weren’t supposed to be deserted, and he would try to help them out even if the congress did not help him. He told the students’ things he planned to do, and he would do them single-handedly if the congress did not back him up. He said that he would ensure that each individual had an access to acquiring college education. This showed that the president was concerned about the future generation who are the next leaders of America, and by giving

Working with and Leading People Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Working with and Leading People - Essay Example Taking into consideration the legal and ethical aspect of the selection process, I would use the screening procedure to find the right candidates. This is because; it would enable me to better know the passion of the candidates towards cooking (Dess, Lumpkin, and Eisner, 2006, pp. 21-25). Leadership and motivation are imperative aspects for any kind of a job. This is because an individual’s performance is affected by the leadership which exists as well as the motivation aspects. In this case, the best leadership and motivation theory supporting Oliver’s leadership is the McClelland’s theory. This is because; it relates to the personality that people acquire which remains unchanged. The candidates in this case have a strong desire to achieve their goals. Additionally, they have the need to establish affiliation and power and that is offered by the leadership style practiced by Oliver. The leadership style used in Oliver’s organization is servant. This is because; despite Oliver being the founder of â€Å"fifteen† puts the need of the others before his own (Solansky, 2008, pp. 337-339). Every student is included in decision making as well as giving all the necessary tools for the work. The leadership style is best suited for this orga nization. Team work is an important aspect in the performance of any organization. This is because by working collaboratively people are able to achieve the set goals with a lot of ease. The team under Oliver’s leadership is active, but also enjoys their work immensely (Chen, and Barshes, 2000, p. 30). Because of the team’s efficiency, the organization was able to get international recognition and also earn a lot of revenue. This is extremely beneficial to the organization’s reputation and brand image. Nevertheless, there were challenges that were portrayed by the team members. For instance, some of the members were kicked out because they were violent. Some members also lost their temper

A View from the Bridge by Cherokee McDonald & Two Ways of Seeing a Essay

A View from the Bridge by Cherokee McDonald & Two Ways of Seeing a River by Mark Twain - Essay Example 2. Comparative Analysis Although the two essays deal with two different subject matters and themes yet there are some similarities in the thematic concerns and symbolism incorporated by the two authors. However the technique or the style of narration utilized and the depiction of the theme and symbols highlight their individualistic writing styles. 2.1. Narration Technique Mark Twain in his treatise uses the technique of third person narration which provides the readers with a chance to draw their personal conclusions as he acts as a mediator between the reader and the text. On the other hand McDonald employs the first person narration technique. Although generally it is assumed that first person narration limits a text’s interpretations for the readers since it is a first hand account of a writer’s explication of a situation. Yet the incorporation of the dialogues can be inferred as a technique employed in order to establish a close connection between the action of tak ing place in the essay and the readers. The use of dialogues also camouflages the presence of the writer or the narrator in the text. However a major similarity that is observed in the depiction of writing style is that both authors illustrate detailed descriptions. As observed that McDonald says, â€Å"He was a lumpy little guy with baggy shorts, and a faded T-shirt and heavy sweat socks falling down over old sneakers† (). Similarly Twain states, â€Å"A broad expanse of the river was turned to blood; in the middle distance the red hue brightened into gold†¦ in another the surface was broken by boiling, tumbling rings, that were as many-tinted as an opal; where the ruddy flush was faintest, was a smooth spot that was covered with graceful circles...high above the forest wall a clean-stemmed dead tree waved a single leafy bough that glowed like a flame in the unobstructed splendor that was flowing from the sun† (). Hence both the writers pay special attention to t he minute details. 2.2. Thematic Concern A major common theme that both the authors deal with in their respective pieces of work is the theme of innocence although the manner in which they project it is different. It is stated in Two Ways of Seeing a River that, â€Å"Now when I had mastered the language of this water and had come to know every trifling feature that bordered the great river as familiarly as I knew the letters of the alphabet, I had made a valuable acquisition†¦ All the grace, the beauty, the poetry had gone out of the majestic river† (). This line can be interpretted as, that the writer believes it is better to retain an aura of mystery or innocence and all the secrets should not be revealed so that it can stimulate human curiosity and interest. Since when all the mysteries are unveiled as is the case with the river than it becomes monotonous and even stifling because the newness fades away. Moreover in terms of human beings and their behavior it can be perceived that Overanalyzing of people or even ones self can result in the loss of beauty (however bittersweet) of humanity. A similar theme is used by McDonald in his essay. He emphasizes the importance of innocence through the actions of the blind child i.e. since his lack of sight hinders his quest for knowledge the

NETWORK ASSIGNMENT ABOUT 802.1D Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

NETWORK ABOUT 802.1D - Assignment Example The bridged MAC functions beneath the service boundary of the MAC, as it is visible to operational protocols after the boundary i.e. logical link control that is considered to be a partial layer or network layer (2). The existence of more than one MAC bridges will make a difference in Quality of Service (QoS) that is provisioned by the sub layer of MAC, as these configurations for operation of the MAC Bridge are not fully visible (4). Likewise, a local area network that is set to a bridged mode will provide (3): The end users or the end systems receiving MAC service are connected to a bridged local area network that is in a connection less mode (5). The MAC service is mentioned in the ISO 15802-1 standard, as it is considered to be an abstraction for the number of services and functionalities for a number of precise MAC services. Likewise, it labels the exchange of users from source to destination from MA-UNITDATA requests and at the same time corresponds with MA-UNITDATA for indicating primitives that are assigned from the MAC wireless access points. Every request pertaining to MA-UNITDATA and indicating primitives incorporates four parameters i.e. source address, destination address, Priority and MAC service data unit (MSDU). For enhancing the MAC service availability for the end users along with the management of network support, MAC bridges need the following configuration (5): A bridge is not accessible directly from communicating end users excluding end station that is utilized for management, as frames that are exchanged to the end users are tagged with the MAC address associated with peers along with address field of the destination, as MAC address of the bridge is not tagged. The Information that is filtered cannot be altered or customized by utilizing this technique. In order to avoid unauthorized access into network the connection will contradict service and abandon the provided

Investment Promotion ( Jordan ) Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Investment Promotion ( Jordan ) - Case Study Example Multinational corporations are often motivated to invest in foreign countries because these locations have lower regulations which reduce compliance costs. Another reason to invest in a foreign country is to take advantage of lower materials costs. Often companies choose to establish a physical presence in a foreign country to take advantage of the demand for their product in the domestic marketplace. For instance if a country has a high demand for electronics, but the local producers are not satisfying the demand it makes sense for an electronics company to establish a physical presence in that country to exploit the business opportunity. Another reason companies penetrate certain international locations is due to governmental incentives and tax shelters. The presence of free trade agreements with the United States persuades many manufactures to operate in countries that offer these types of benefits. One of the most attractive features that Middle East countries provide to companies looking to invest in this region is a high availability of cheap labor. Due to the high employment rate in the region a company that establishes itself in the Middle East would not have any problem recruiting workers since thousands of people would apply for jobs. Jordan in particular offers several advantages to companies. Jordan offers preferential tax treatment to companies that invest in certain industries. If a company invests in rural or remote areas of Jordan the government offers a 75% tax exemption for a ten year period. Companies that invest in the Amman region are eligible for a 25% tax exemption for a ten year period. The Jordan government offers new investors a duty free privilege on imported equipment. Jordan is a particularly attractive location for U.S. investors. The Jordan-U.S. Free Trade Agreement eliminated tariffs on some Jordanian goods exported to the United States. In order fo r this benefit to

Accounting project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Accounting project - Essay Example considerably ‘greener’ alternative in the form of a hydrocarbon solvent, with a view that we can emulate the success that firms in the several states of United States and Europe have had by following a strategy from an ethical standpoint. Hydrocarbon alternatives have 90% fewer emissions into the environment, greater efficiency, and thus positive benefits for employees, and consumers alike. The company and its service has several uniqueness’s, these are as discussed below: The company will be started off in three different locations. The organisational structure and the decision making of the company will be centralised, i.e. all the decision making for major issues will be handled by the head office and chair person. The company will be set up in three different locations of which the head quarters will be in Abu Dhabi. The other two locations include Mumbai (India) and Cardiff (UK). All major decisions will be made by the chairman. The Abu Dhabi branch being the head quarters will include the main heads of operations, finance, HR, and marketing, will be responsible to handle the entire process across the three locations. The organisational structure of the company will be as illustrated below: a) Finance and HR Head: The finance and HR head will be located in Abu Dhabi and the accountants of the other two locations will be answerable here. All recruitments and weekly accounts need to be sent to the Head quarters and to be checked by the Finance head to ensure all the finances are in order. The finance head will also be responsible to manage the daily finances of the Abu Dhabi branch. b) Operations Head: The operations head will be located in Abu Dhabi and will be responsible to manage the customers as well as the operations staff including the drivers and the assistant. The operations head will also be responsible to mange the staff of the other two locations as well and will need to get daily reports for the activities from time the employees clocked

Evaluating Eligibility Rules Essay Example for Free

Evaluating Eligibility Rules Essay In determining which eligibility rules can be associated with the Lakeland Police Department, it the objectives of such institution must be looked into before going through the details in which such rules apply. The institution provides public and security measures to the community it holds. They promote the welfare of the people around them under the parameters mandated by the law in the creation of such institution. With this, the eligibility rules that the agency uses revolves around the (1) eligibility by administrative rule and regulation, (2) eligibility by administrative discretion and (3) eligibility by judicial decision. To understand whether the eligibility rules advocated by the agency promotes a stigmatization, trade-offs or off-target benefits, each rule must be looked into in accordance to the application of such within the Lakeland Police Department. The eligibility by administrative rule and regulations creates â€Å"an advantage to client beneficiaries because it gives social workers and other human service staff members a means by which to administer the benefit or service program evenhandedly and reliably, so that people similarly situated are given similar benefits. (Chambers and Wedal, 2005, p. 112) This rule can be seen to create trade-offs within the system of Lakeland Police Department. Trade-offs is evident because of the situational circumstances in which this rule can be applied to citizens within the district. There are implications of such applications in the way the police department addresses the people. â€Å"On the other hand, administrative rules restrict the freedom of staff members to use their discretion that is to judge need for the benefit or service in individual circumstances. (Chambers and Wedal, 2005, p. 112) The next thing is the eligibility by administrative discretion. This discretion sees to it that all particular concerns within a system need to be addressed by the agency. â€Å"All general organizational policies and administrative rules must be interpreted and applied to individual situations, so it is important to understand that such interpretation and applications necessarily involve significant personal judgment on the part of the staff member. † (Chambers and Wedal, 2005, p. 14) With this, it can be seen that there is a stigmatization of benefits among members of the community handled by the Lakeland Police Department. Their capability to address situations of its citizens particularly concerning their welfare in accordance to the law and mandates of the city can clearly be seen. This creates benefits among locals on the assurance that their welfare is protected by the agency. Lastly, is the eligibility of judicial decision. This rule can also be seen as applicable to the Lakeland Police Department. After a program has been in operation for a period of time, it is very likely that a contention will arise about whether the enabling legislation or whether an administrative rule or discretionary judgment was faithful to the spirit and intention of the law under which the program or policy was established. † (Chambers and Wedal, 2005, p. 115) It can be seen that this categorization creates an important part of the Lakeland Police Academy. This creates a stigmatization of benefits among local citizenry. It may be true that the agency can exercise administrative discretion, however issues may arise between the proper execution and application of such initiative among members of the community. This rule seeks to create a check-and-balance among the members of the police force. It is true that the objectives are in-line with the rules and mandates of the law, however, the actual practice remains to be on the part of local enforcers and policeman. This creates a subjective interpretation of actions by enforcers that more often than not leads to judicial contention. Appeals to the judiciary for clarification of the law are routine and in the end they can become as important as the legislation or administrative rules themselves. † (Chambers and Wedal, 2005, p. 115) To determine whether there are weak rules in the system of Lakeland Police Department, the three eligibility rules again must be looked into. On the eligibility by administrative rule and regulation, there exists a problematic issue on how to effectively distinguish what are the different parameters for such actions. The agency may have difficulty in promoting the necessary measures present if such issue persists. â€Å"Therefore, it is important to know whether a certain entitlement rule originates with judicial decisions, administrative rule, or individual staff discretion, for on that fact depends the probability of change – staff decisions certainly are changed more easily than are formal rules and statutes. † (Chambers and Wedal, 2005, p. 112) On the other hand, the two other eligibility rules are described to be minimal in problems. This is due to their ability to sink within the system and serve as both a check-and-balance among local authorities under the Lakewood Police Department and an initiative to further create changes that the department needs to address the changing needs of the future. Eligibility rules are characterized to create a foundation for actions by people. In the case of Lakewood Police Department, it seeks to cater the needs of the locals in promoting security and their welfare. In the issue of such eligibility rules being fair, it can be argued that they are indeed fair overall since it is based from the mandate of laws and legislation. The only issue here is the actual application of such rules by people who supposed to be fit for the description. Sometimes, there is a subjective interpretation of how such rules can be applied. This creates the sense of disparity of opinions and practices to both local and enforcers of such rules. On the other hand, tackling the issue of sufficiency, yes, it can be argued that the rules applied during that time are sufficient to address the current need of the locals. However, it may not be the case in the future as new issues and challenges arise within the new system. That is why, changes in the system and rules are needed to further pursue the interests of people. For one, rules are and regulations are meant for the people to ensure their security and welfare within the community.

Drug Abuse Essay Example for Free

Drug Abuse Essay The first edition of the report on ‘drug abuse’ has been made by our group to give an idea of the calamitous cause of using drugs in improper way. The report is intended to serve the purpose of providing the knowledge about drug abuse and to suggest ways to help limit drug abuse. An effort has been made on our part to include certain symptoms which indicate drug abuse. Also throughout the report, repetitive use of the drug abuse’ has been made to instate into the minds of the reader the cause of using drug abuse in an illicit manner The selection of the topic ‘Drug Abuse’ has been made in order to remind us of the menace of drug abuse. We live in a world where speed is the name of the game. A world where we cannot halt even for second or someone else will zip fast us to take our place. People say that it is a beautiful world if only we take time to look around. But a world has turn into a place where humanity cannot survive, only steel can. In this fast paced, ruthless, aggressive environment, there are easy ways out. Alcohol, cigarettes, drugs, are some of the most popular substances abused by people in order to include a false sense of peace, to provide a short but powerful release from the worries and troubles of their daily lives to provide a means of escape from the harsh realities of life. This report is intended to be a reminder to such folk who have let their life be washed away by drugs. In the following report, we discuss the various aspects of drug abuse. Ranging from its impact on the younger generation to the way if affects the fields of competitive sports, we presents a comprehensive survey on the topic of drug abuse. Also discussed are the physical effects caused by excessive use of drugs. Drugs like â€Å"charas† and its derivatives â€Å"bhang† have a long history of use in Indian mythology and tradition. Popular television shows, pop culture, music’s, video represents the medium through which children are influenced today. Abuse of narcotic and psychoactive stimulants  forms the core of most popular music videos. Parties in metropolitan cities today are not concluded without the customary party drugs. Available easily on the street, at rates not affected by inflation, drugs are among the most harmful items on any individual’s shopping list. In the following report, an attempt has been made to discuss the causes cure for drug abuse. This report is intended for all audiences. Acknowledgment We would like to express our gratitude to our guide and mentor Prof.Santosh Bhagat , PCT in charge , who over the past semester has guided, corrected and provided us with necessary direction whenever the need arose. But for his invaluable guidance, illuminating discussion and constant encouragement, our report would have been a distant dream. We would also like to thank Mrs. Kalyani, for her unique way of teaching us and arousing our interest towards the finer points of communication skills and report writing. Also we would like to thank all those who co-operated with us and gave their invaluable inputs, advice and suggestion to the making of this report Summary Drug abuse is the use of illegal drugs, or the misuse of prescription or over-the-counter drugs. In the sense of consuming illicit drugs like cocaine or overdose of soft drug in the medicine like crocin. Drug abuse also includes the administration of drugs by athletes to enhance their ability in the respective sport. Drug abuse can not only endanger the physical balance of the body, but also it disturbs the stability of the society. Addiction is a chronic, often relapsing brain disease that causes compulsive drug seeking and use despite harmful consequences to the  individual who is addicted and to those around them. Drug addiction is a brain disease because the abuse of drugs leads to changes in the structure and function of the brain. Although it is true that for most people the initial decision to take drugs is voluntary, over time the changes in the brain caused by repeated drug abuse can affect a person’s self control and ability to make sound decisions, and at the same time send intense impulses to take drugs. It is because of these changes in the brain that it is so challenging for a person who is addicted to stop abusing drugs. Fortunately, there are treatments that help people to counteract addiction’s powerful disruptive effects and regain control. Research shows that combining addiction treatment medications, if available, with behavioral therapy is the best way to ensure success for most patients. Treatment approaches that are tailored to each patient’s drug abuse patterns and any co-occurring medical, psychiatric, and social problems can lead to sustained recovery and a life without drug abuse. Similar to other chronic, relapsing diseases, such as diabetes, asthma, or heart disease, drug addiction can be managed successfully. And, as with other chronic diseases, it is not uncommon for a person to relapse and begin abusing drugs again. Relapse, however, does not signal failure—rather, it indicates that treatment should be reinstated, adjusted, or that alternate treatment is needed to help the individual regain control and recover. However, the main motive of the text is to minimize drug abuse. The message maintained throughout the text is to be confident in oneself and not to resort to drugs through ones phase of glum. The key is to beat drug abuse is not vigilance. It is will power, confidence and the strength of human spirit. Introduction â€Å"I’m so happy because today I’ve found my friends; They’re in my head, I’m so ugly, but that’s okay, cause so are you; We’ve broken our mirrors, Sunday morning is every day for all I care; And I’m not scared, Light my candles; In a daze, cause I’ve found GOD† -Kurt cobain, Nirvana These lyrics made into wonderful song by the band nirvana express the feelings of a person who has just administered cocaine, a drug that capsizes the human ability to think. This person is very happy with his life. All his problems seem like daze to him. He is rid of all mortal aspects of life. Then isn’t this is a wonderful experience? Well this experience caused due to administration of certain illicit drugs is called is high. This ‘high† enables the person to reach mental level of peace and calm. However, as sir Newton said â€Å"what goes up must come down .and the higher it goes the hardest it falls.â€Å" The person who administered the drug experiences a feeling known as the crash, wherein he enters into gloomy state of depression. This state of depression doesn’t leave the person till he administers the drug back again. This in turn makes the person addicted towards the drug and thus makes the person abuse drug furthermore. When an individual begins to abuse drugs, the whole family is affected. Depending on the severity of the addiction, they may begin to steal or borrow money from the family, act strange and spend days living on the street. The only thing that is important is how they will get their next high. There may be conflicts in the family about how to treat this individual. Some may continue to support him while others adopt a tough love strategy. It is difficult to know what to do, and heartbreaking to see an  individual become a slave to a drug. The recent incidents of drunken driving causing severe facilities on Indian roads are considered by many as concrete evidence of drug abuse among minor, and also as a case of severe indifference and neglect among their parents. Now, drug abuse is turning into a menace that has engulfed the world. Let’s fight collectively against this menace. Let’s learn about drug abuse. What is really means and how one can conquer it. What is drug abuse? Drug abuse, also known as substance abuse, refers to a maladaptive pattern of use of a substance that is not considered dependent. The term drug abuse does not exclude dependency, but is otherwise used in a similar manner in non medical contexts. The terms have a huge range of definitions related to taking a psychoactive drug or performance enhancing drug for a non-therapeutic or non-medical effect. All of these definitions imply a negative judgment of the drug use in question (compare with the term responsible drug use for alternative views). Some of the drugs most often associated with this term include alcohol, amphetamines, barbiturates, benzodiazepines, cocaine, methaqualone, and opioids. Use of these drugs may lead to criminal penalty in addition to possible physical, social, and psychological harm, both strongly depending on local jurisdiction. Other definitions of drug abuse fall into four main categories: public health definitions, mass communication and vernacular usage, medical definitions, and political and criminal justice definitions. Drug addiction is when you become dependent on a drug, and it forms a central part of your life. Misusing drugs can lead to physical dependency, or psychological dependency. Physical dependency means that your body has become so used to a drug that you get physical withdrawal symptoms if you stop taking it. This means that you have to keep taking the drug to stop yourself feeling ill. Psychological dependency means that you take the drug because it has formed a large part of your life, and you take it to make yourself feel good. You may feel that you cannot stop taking the drug, even though you are  not physically dependant. Some drugs can make you both physically and psychologically dependent. As you take more of a drug, your body becomes tolerant to it so it does not have such a strong effect. This means that you need to take larger amounts to get the same effect as when you started taking it. Drug misuse is when you take illegal drugs, or when you take medicines in a way not recommended by your doctor or the manufacturer. Taking medicines in very large quantities that are dangerous to your health is also an example of drug misuse. Examples of drugs that are commonly misused include: Illegal drugs, Alcohol, Tobacco, Prescribed medicines including painkillers, sleeping tablets, and cold remedies, khat (a leaf that is chewed over several hours), and Glues, aerosols, gases and solvents. What happens to your brain when you take drugs? Drugs are chemicals that tap into the brains communication system and disrupt the way nerve cells normally send, receive, and process information. There are at least two ways that drugs are able to do this: (1) by imitating the brains natural chemical messengers, and/or (2) by over stimulating the reward circuit of the brain. Some drugs, such as marijuana and heroin, have a similar structure to chemical messengers, called neurotransmitters, which are naturally produced by the brain. Because of this similarity, these drugs are able to fool the brains receptors and activate nerve cells to send abnormal messages. Other drugs, such as cocaine or methamphetamine, can cause the nerve cells to release abnormally large amounts of natural neurotransmitters, or prevent the normal recycling of these brain chemicals, which is needed to shut off the signal between neurons. This disruption produces a greatly amplified message that ultimately disrupts normal communication patterns. Nearly all drugs, directly or indirectly, target the brains reward system by flooding the circuit with dopamine. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter present in regions of the brain that control movement, emotion, motivation, and feelings of pleasure. The over stimulation of this system, which normally responds to natural behaviors that are linked to survival (eating, spending time with loved ones, etc), produces euphoric effects in response to the drugs. This reaction sets in motion a pattern that teaches people to repeat the behavior of abusing drugs. As a person continues to abuse drugs, the brain adapts to the overwhelming surges in dopamine by producing less dopamine or by reducing the number of dopamine receptors in the reward circuit. As a result, dopamines impact on the reward circuit is lessened, reducing the abusers ability to enjoy the drugs and the things that previously brought pleasure. This decrease compels those addicted to drugs to keep abusing drugs in order to attempt to bring their dopamine function back to normal. And, they may now require larger amounts of the drug than they first did to achieve the dopamine high an effect known as tolerance. Long-term abuse causes changes in other brain chemical systems and circuits as well. Glutamate is a neurotransmitter that influences the reward circuit and the ability to learn. When the optimal concentration of glutamate is altered by drug abuse, the brain attempts to compensate, which can impair cognitive function. Drugs of abuse facilitate no conscious  (conditioned) learning, which leads the user to experience uncontrollable cravings when they see a place or person they associate with the drug experience, even when the drug itself is not available. Brain imaging studies of drug-addicted individuals show changes in areas of the brain that are critical to judgment, decision making, learning and memory, and behavior control. Together, these changes can drive an abuser to seek out and take drugs compulsively despite adverse consequences in other words, to become addicted to drugs. Why do some people become addicted, while others do not? No single factor can predict whether or not a person will become addicted to drugs. Risk for addiction is influenced by a persons biology, social environment, and age or stage of development. The more risk factors an individual has, the greater the chance that taking drugs can lead to addiction. For example: Biology: The genes that people are born with in combination with environmental influences account for about half of their addiction vulnerability. Additionally, gender, ethnicity, and the presence of other mental disorders may influence risk for drug abuse and addiction. Environment:. A persons environment includes many different influences from family and friends to socioeconomic status and quality of life in general. Factors such as peer pressure, physical and sexual abuse, stress, and parental involvement can greatly influence the course of drug abuse and addiction in a persons life. Development: Genetic and environmental factors interact with critical developmental stages in a persons life to affect addiction vulnerability, and adolescents experience a double challenge. Although taking drugs at any age can lead to addiction, the earlier that drug use begins, the more likely it is to progress to more serious abuse. And because adolescents brains are still developing in the areas that govern decision making, judgment, and self-control, they are especially prone to risk-taking  behaviors, including trying drugs of abuse. Spiritual usage of cannabis (charas) in Indian history and tradition Cannabis was used in Hindu culture as early as 1500 BCE, and its ancient use is confirmed within the Vedas (Sama Veda, Rig Veda, and Atharva Veda). There are three types of cannabis used in India. The first, Bhang, consists of the leaves and plant tops of the marijuana plant. It is usually consumed as an infusion in beverage form, and varies in strength according to how much Cannabis is used in the preparation. The second, Ganja, consisting of the leaves and the plant tops, is smoked. The third, called Charas or Hashish, consists of the resinous buds and/or extracted resin from the leaves of the marijuana plant. Typically, Bhang is the most commonly used form of cannabis in religious festivals. Connection of ganja with the worship of shiva Cannabis or ganja is associated with worship of the Hindu deity Shiva, who is popularly believed to like the hemp plant. Bhang is offered to Shiva images, especially on Shivratri festival. This practice is particularly witnessed at temples of Benares, Baidynath and Tarakeswar. Bhang is not only offered to the deity, but also consumed by Shaivite (sect of Shiva) yogis. Charas is smoked by some Shaivite devotees and cannabis itself is seen as a gift (prasad, or offering) to Shiva to aid in sadhana. Some of the wandering ascetics in India known as sadhus smoke charas out of a clay chillum. During the Hindu festival of Holi, people consume a drink called bhang which contains cannabis flowers.[33][35] According to one description, when the elixir of life was produced from the churning of the ocean by the devas and the asuras, Shiva created cannabis from his own body to purify the elixir (whence, for cannabis, the epithet angaja or body-born). Another account suggests that the cannabis plant sprang when a drop of the elixir dropped on the ground. Thus, cannabis is used by sages due to association with elixir and Shiva. Wise drinking of bhang, according to religious rites, is believed to cleanse sins, unite one with Shiva and  avoid the miseries of hell in the after-life. In contrast, foolish drinking of bhang without rites is considered a sin. Regarding Buddhism, the fifth precept is to abstain from wines, liquors and intoxicants that cause heedessness. Most interpretations of the fifth precept would therfore include all forms of cannabis amongst the intoxicants that a Buddhist should abstain from consuming. However, the Buddhist precepts are guidelines whose purpose is to encourage a moral lifestyle rather than being strict religious commandments, and some lay practitioners of Buddhism may choose to consume cannabis and other mild intoxicants occasionally. Cannabis and some other psychoactive plants are specifically prescribed in the MahÄ kÄ la Tantra for medicinal purposes. However, Tantra is an esoteric teaching of Buddhism not generally accepted by most other forms of Buddhism. Drug Abuse Effects Drug abuse effects include damage to the physical, emotional, and psychological parts of the body. In addition, they compromise the social aspects of regular family, friends and job-related relationships. Drug abuse effects involve the physical body extensively and according to the kind of drugs that are used. Drug abuse effects injure the brain in a variety of ways, including: Hallucinations Mood swings Chemical imbalances Over-stimulation of dopamine (the pleasure center) Disruption of regular sleep/wake patterns Anxiety and nervous system stimulation These injuries impede regular brain processing mechanisms. They block the pathways and make the process of decision-making harder. Drug abuse effects cause lapses in memory and exaggerate reactions to events. Effects also include failing to respond to consequences and events in the environment. When someone is preoccupied with the effects of the drug or is focused on the pleasure center of the brain, they fail to notice anything else. Drug Abuse Effects and Stress Management Coping well with stressors is based on the ability to find options to obstacles. This requires observation, patience and reasoning ability. All of these coping mechanisms are compromised due to drug abuse effects. Specifically, they make stress management difficult because they: Encourage a lack of impulse control Alter the perception of events Block the ability to make sound judgments Promote oblivion; the tendency to focus on the sensations of the high to the extreme Trigger knee-jerk reactions Stimulate frustration and anger responses Other drug abuse effects encompass an array of unexpected and serious symptoms: Users of cocaine and crack experience a crash in mood elevation after the effects of the drug wear off. The crash is described as feelings of depression, craving for more of the drug, emptiness and irritability. These drug abuse effects are the prerequisite conditions to the addiction. More of  the drug is used to get rid of the negative feelings produced by the crash. Some drug abuse effects spur flashbacks. These episodes are spontaneous recurring instances similar to the high produced by the drug except that they occur at a time when the drug was not in use. Most drug abuse effects are the symptoms of withdrawal. These include poor physical coordination, nausea, anxiety, paranoia, muscle spasms and abdominal cramping. More severe drug abuse effects can be caused by the transfer of HIV and sexually transmitted diseases from person to person by sharing needles and syringes. The most devastating drug abuse effects are overdoses. Overdoses occur when people do not know how much of the drug the body can accept at one time and when increased amounts of the drug are injected or ingested in order to produce the same intensity of drug abuse effects. Effects of Drug Addiction It is often difficult with drug and alcohol addiction to decide is something a CAUSE or an EFFECT. Did the depression CAUSE the addiction or did the alcoholism cause the depression? Did the alcoholism CAUSE the family problems or where the family problems an EFFECT of the addiction. Often no one knows for sure. Q: What are the major effects of drug addiction? It is everybody’s problem. An addict might say: â€Å"I’m not hurting anybody. I’m only hurting myself.† However, we can quickly see that the statement is false, because there is no such thing as an addict who is only hurting him/herself. The problem is found everywhere, from the rich and privileged, to the lost members of society. For over 30 years the United States government has had its â€Å"War on Drugs,† but in that time frame we have seen in increase in crime, increase in health care costs and an alarming increase in the use of dangerous drugs such as cocaine, heroin, crack and methamphetamine. The â€Å"War on Drugs† has also brought on new research, a greater number of treatment facilities, new and sometimes controversial theories on treatment, advances in drug addiction medications, but are we winning? The effects of drug addiction are far reaching and can be seen in the home, on the job, in churches and in schools. Q:What are the effects of drug addiction on health? If left unchecked, the drug is going to win. Drug abuse is a disease of the brain, and the drugs change brain chemistry, which results in a change in behavior. Aside from the obvious behavioral consequences of addiction, the negative effects on a person’s health are potentially devastating. While addicts use drugs to â€Å"feel better,† the unintended consequences include but are not limited to overdose, HIV/AIDS, stroke, cardiovascular disease and a host of related maladies. To understand this better you may want to read Get Sick to Feel Better a story of the negative effects of drug addiction Darcis story of the effects of drug addiction on her life! Suicide is also a common effect of drug addiction. Depression is also an effect of addiction. Q:What are the effects of drug addiction on the family? One of the saddest aspects of the insidious nature of drug addiction is that by the time an addict realizes he/she has a problem, that problem has already taken a heavy toll on the family. Parents in treatment centers tell counselors and therapists that they want to â€Å"get their kids back,† as drug addiction has taken over to the point where the courts have been forced to remove the children from the home. Husbands and wives, brothers and sisters, and sadly children are all impacted. Families can be sources of strength and support, or they can passively enable the addiction to advance. Families can share in the victory over drug addiction, or they can be the victims of it. Q:What are the effects of drug addiction on the economy? Beyond the personal health issues, beyond the devastating effect on families, beyond community crime statistics, drug addiction has a major impact on the American economy. The National Institute on Drug Abuse reported that some $67 billion per year is the impact that drug addiction has on this country. This total includes the cost of law enforcement, incarceration, treatments, traffic injuries, lost time in the workplace, etc. Drug addiction causes impaired reasoning, and therefore the crime rate is dramatically impacted by drug use. Addicts have a much higher likelihood of committing crimes than others. Q: What are the effects of drug addiction on our society? The National Library of Medicine estimates that some 20% of all people in the  United States have used prescription medication for non-medical purposes. We’re not talking about cocaine, heroin or methamphetamine use, but doctor-prescribed medication. You can easily see that if you group the two together, illegal drug use and prescription drug misuse, we have a huge problem. Q: What are the effects of drug addiction on the Law? The news media reports daily struggles with theft, drive-by shootings, drug busts, illegal trafficking and manufacturing of drugs, and arrests for crimes ranging from child neglect to murder. Look closer and chances are great that you will uncover a drug addiction component to any of these stories. Drug Use Drug Use in the General Population According to the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) 2001 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 15.9 million Americans ages 12 and older (7.1%) reported using an illicit drug in the month before the survey was conducted. More than 12% reported illicit drug use during the past year and 41.7% reported some use of an illicit drug at least once during their lifetimes.

Alpine Plant Biodiversity in the Central Himalayas

Alpine Plant Biodiversity in the Central Himalayas Alpine Plant Biodiversity in the Central Himalayan Region: Perspective of Global Climate Change Summary Increase in surface temperature at global scale has already affected a diverse set of physical and biological systems in many parts of the world and if it increases at this rapid rate then the condition would be worst one could have ever thought off. Garhwal Himalaya, major part of the great Himalayan mountainous system is also much sensitive and vulnerable to the local, regional and global changing climate. Due to strong altitudinal gradient, varied climatic conditions and diverse set of floral and faunal composition, the impact of climate change seems to be much higher. This paper highlights some important features of the changing pattern of vegetational composition, distribution and impact of climate change on the phenological aspect of major alpine plant species present in the Garhwal Himalayan region. It also shows cumulative changes, which operate at local level but are globally pervasive. These cumulative changes include change in the land cover/ land use and other anthropogen ic activities, which are related to the climate change. Overall biodiversity in the Himalayan region has been depleted as the consequences of complex and multitude pressure of climate change. The depleted biodiversity has indirectly affected the socio-economic development of the local communities on which their sustenance depends and is inherently critical to the consideration and management of natural resource. Introduction Plant diversity and Status The varied altitudinal, climatic and topographical conditions in the Himalaya results in different types of microhabitats. Geographic isolation, glaciations, evolution and migration of the species in the past all together have contributed to the high level of biodiversity in this mountain system. As per genetic, species and ecosystem level resources, Himalaya is one of the hotspots of biodiversity in the world, which represents about one-tenth of the worlds known species of high altitude plant and animal species. Some parts in the Himalayan region are center for origin of many crops and fruit species and are important source of gene for their wild relatives. The floral diversity of this region shows assemblage of many endemic and exotic species of plants from the adjoining regions. A large number of western Himalayan flora in the Garhwal Kumaon region seems to have been invaded from Tibet, western China and adjoining north-east Asia (Rau, 1975). In the present scenario biodiversity seems to have been depleted in these regions due to land degradation, habitat fragmentation, increasing population pressure, over exploitation of bio-resources and finally due to the changing pattern of the climate. Nearly 10% of flowering plants are listed under various categories of threatened species. Red Data Book of Indian plants listed about 620 threatened species, of which, 28 are presumed extinct, 124 endangered, 81 vulnerable, 160 rare and 34 insufficiently known (Nayar and Sastry, 1987, 1988), however, Red list of threatened plants indicates 19 species as extinct. Among others, 1236 species are listed as threatened, of which, 41 taxa are possibly extinct, 152 endangered, 102 vulnerable, 251 rare and 690 of indeterminate status (IUCN, 1997). From the Himalayan region the important plant species included in threatened categories are mostly the valuable medicinal and aromatic plants, which, support the economic condition and health care sys tem of the local communities. It is well known that, in the context of the present scenario of climate change especially due to global warming many of the high-elevated ecosystems are severely sensitive and vulnerable. Their fragility may accelerate the changes occurring in their composition and structure to the slight variations in climatic factors. These regions include glacier, alpine pasture/ meadows and timber line ecosystem, which are the important source of the seasonal runoff, freshwater, valuable medicinal and aromatic plants, grazing land, source of timber and wild edibles for the mankind. Future scenario of climate change: According to the Third Assessment Report of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2001, average global temperature close to the earths surface has increased by 0.6 Â °C Â ± 0.2Â ° C since 19th century mainly due to the emission of CO2. If human beings do not act to reduce the present level of CO2 there will be additional increment in temperature of 1.4Â ° C to 5.8Â ° C in the next 40 100 year. Current information available on the pattern of future climate change through General Circulation Models (GCMs) suggested that the annual mean warming would increase about 3Â °C in the decade of 2050s and about 5Â °C in decade of the 2080s over the land region of Asia. Precipitation would increase annually about 7% and 11% in decades of 2050s and 2080s respectively. There would be a decline in the summer precipitation that seems likely to be over the central part of arid and semi-arid Asia. GCM also showed high uncertainty in future projection of winter and summer precipitati on over south Asia, because much of tropical Asian climate is noticeably associated with the annual monsoon cycle. In Central Himalayan region, through the assessment of people perception it is interpreted that, climate change resulted in the increase in warming, decline in rainfall during March- May, high rainfall during Aug- Sept instead of normal peak in July- Aug, decline in the snowfall intensity and winter precipitation in Jan-Feb instead of Dec-Jan (Saxena et al., 2004). This scenario can hardly trigger to think about the changing pattern of climate or its negative and positive impacts at local, regional and global level. Although assessment of future climate change scenario through some of scientific models needs a better infrastructure and high technological inputs, specific impact of climate change on different ecosystems can be discerned by comprehensive studies on long term monitoring of the different aspects of ecosystem which is lacking in the Indian context especially in the Garhwal Himalayan region due to poor infrastructure and management practices. So, as per as need concern in these remote areas the assessment of impact on the natural resources in future climate changes can be done through the site-specific sensitivity analysis and it can be related to the traditional knowledges of the peoples living in this particular region of the Himalaya. Sensitivity analysis would help to assess what will be happen if various climatic variables changed, and analysis also evaluates the positive or negative impacts of changing climate on the natural resources. This assessment would help us to make the l ocal communities realize the importance of conservation and management practice so that the endangered and threatened species could be saved from becoming extinct. Assessment of vulnerability and adaptive capacity of the various ecosystems and to develop indigenous knowledge based coping mechanism are important to determine the impact of climate change. This also links the ecological processes to the social processes and appreciates the relationship between the biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. Climate change: Impact on different vegetation zone Natural ecosystems at high elevations are much more sensitive to the climatic variations (Ramakrishnan et al., 2003) or global warming then the managed systems. Their sensitivity is prominently attributed to their limited productivity during snow-free growing season (Price et al., 2000), low dispersal capability, geographically localized, genetically impoverished, highly specialized and slow reproducing ability of the high altitude plants (McNeely, 1990; WWF, 2003). As a consequence of global warming the present distribution of species in high altitude ecosystems projected to shift higher as results of upward altitudinal movement of the vegetation belts. Although the rate of vegetation change is expected to be slow and colonization success would depend on the ability of adaptation and interaction of the plant species with the climate and other associated species, weeds, exotic and invasive species. Their success also depends on their ecological niche width and their role in the ecosy stem functioning. Increase in the temperature would result competition between such species and new arrivals. As the result, species which have wide ecological tolerance have an advantage to adapt and those which are at the edge of range, genetically impoverished, poor dispersal ability and reproducer are under the threshold of extinction. A likely impact of climate change is also observed over the phenological aspect of vegetation in the alpine, sub alpine and timberline zone. Changes in the pattern of snowfall and snowmelt in these mountain regions and increase in mean annual surface temperature has pronounce impact on the date and time of the flowering and other phenophases of certain valuable, keystone species of plants. Earlier snowmelt simulate early flowering in some early growing plants and possibly increase in surface temperature may extend the growing period and productivity of certain grass species in the cooler climatic region. There is a gradual decrease in the growing period from timberline to the snow line, Rawat and Pangtey, (1987) reported about 20 weeks growing period near timberline and barely 4-6 weeks above 5000 m asl. Thus, increase in the average temperature due to global warming the growing period of the vegetation would be seems to extend at high altitudes. Evidences of climate change through p eople perception in Garhwal Himalaya reveals that increase in the warming results decline in the yield of apple fruits and shortening the maturity period of winter crops, whereas, the production of cash crops like potato, peas and kidney beans under warm condition increases. Change in rainfall pattern, snowfall intensity will increase large-scale mortality and damage to the crops, which are close to the maturity on the other hand, Barley and wheat crop production is severely affected due to winter precipitation in months of Jan- Feb (Saxena et al., 2004). Vulnerability of different vegetation belts in the Garhwal Himalaya. Dominant tree species in the low and mid altitude zone have a wider range of distribution. Shorea robusta the climax species of lower elevation is distributed over moist to dry deciduous bio-climates in central India where temperature is much higher while rainfall is quite low. Quercus spp. the climax species at mid elevation is also distributed over a wide range (1100- 1800m) The mid altitude which is dominated by broad leaves and coniferous forest (Rao, 1994) mainly species of Quercus spp. and Pinus spp. on response to the warming may be replaced by the species like Shorea robusta and Terminalia spp. Warming also increases the chance of greater fire risk in dry or moist deciduous forests, these impacts on the forest can directly influence the local livelihood based on fuel and fodder (Ramakrishnan et al. 2003). Rhododendron arboreum is a very prominent forest species because of its red flowers covering almost the whole canopy. At higher elevations this species used to attain peak flowering stage in February / March but now due to warming flowering time in this species seems to shift in the months of January/February. The phenological calendar at lower altitude has thus shifted to the higher altitudes. Exact times of leaf fall, flushing, flowering and fruiting may vary depending upon the elevation indicating sensitivity of phenophases to temperature and moisture stress regime. Flowering and fruiting start earlier about a month with increase in elevation by 600 m (increase in temperature by 2.4 degree C) in Rhododendron arboreum, Prunus cerasoides, Myrica esculenta, Pyrus Pashia and Reinwardtia indica in Central Himalaya. Leafless period in deciduous species like Aesculus indica and Alnus nepalensis is longer at higher altitude as compared to lower altitude. At higher elevation (1500-3300m) i n Central Himalaya, evergreen and winter deciduous species occur equally across the elevation/temperature gradient. All across the elevation / temperature gradient, majority of tree species show vernal flowering. Species showing vernal flowering (before 15 June) increased in frequency and those with aestival flowering (between 15 June 15 September) decreased with increase in annual temperature drown based on the elevation gradient. Thus, change in the temperature would affect flowering and fruiting time of different species or also induce change in species composition. Vegetation of the timberline in different parts of world not only differs in terms of species composition but also exhibit different types of species (Crawford, 1989). In some regions the timberline represents exclusively evergreen conifers while in some it represents totally deciduous broad-leaved trees (Purohit, 2003). In the central Himalaya the Betula utilis, Abies pindrow and Rhododendron campanulatum, are the native species of timberline (Rawal and Pangtey, 1993), and have a complex, spatial habitat and reservoir of large number of medicinal and aromatic plants and wild edibles. During recent past, timberline, the most prominent ecological boundary in the Himalaya where the sub-alpine forests terminates, has been identified as sensitive zone to environmental change and could be effectively modeled / monitored for future climate change processes. The species from tree-line have a narrow range of distribution, as temperature optima for most of these species is higher than the temperature in their natural habitats, warming will be expected to promote their growth but they may be threatened if they fail to compete with the changing climatic conditions (Saxena et al., 2004). Due to the over exploitation and changing global climatic condition many of the medicinal and aromatic plants in and around the timberline shrunk in size and distribution from their natural habitats and some of them are listed rare, threatened and endangered. Besides, the herbs some tree species of the timberline across the western Himalaya viz. Taxus baccata, Betula utilis etc. are also facing sever threats of depletion (Purohit, 2003). Most of the species valued by local communities have a poor soil seed bank, there could be large-scale local extinction of these species if seed production on a landscape scale decline (Saxena et al., 2004). Swan (1967) identified two parts of the alpine region i.e. above timberline (Lower alpine zone; 300 -4000 masl) and higher alpine zone (4000 masl snowline). Grasses and sedges are dominating members of alpine vegetation at lower altitude but they are characteristically replaced by non- grassy dwarf plant species at higher altitude near snowline. The area immediate above timberline and zone of stunted trees shrubs marks the alpine scrub. The vegetation of the lower alpine zone consists of dwarf shrubs, cushionoid herbs, grasses and sedges, Salix, Rosa, Lonicera, Ribes, Cotoneaster and Berberis etc. form the major shrub species at lower alpine zone (Kala et. al., 1998). The herbaceous flora of this zone represent spectacular array of multicolored flowers and include many short period growing cycle plant species. The major herbs of this zone are Potentilla, Geranium, Fritillaria, Lilium, Corydalis, Cyananthus, Anemone, Ranunculus, and Impatiens etc. The vegetation of the higher alpine zone is rather sparse, dotted with moraines, boulders and rocky slopes forming suitable habitat for the patches of shrubs e.g. Rhododendron lepidotum, Juniperus spp. Betula utilis and many species of colourful flowering plants, grasses and sedge etc. In the alpine with the onset of summer, the physical condition of the every patches of ground undergoes constant change, this is the root cause for the instability and succession of plants. Another feature of alpine plant distribution is that in the same habitat one could see the growth of several related or unrelated species and only one species dominate in the entire habitat almost to the exclusion of the other species. This difference may be due to the Physico- chemical properties of the soil. Initiation of growing season depends on the intensity of snowfall in the proceeding season and start of the melting of snow during spring (April May). In alpine region flowering is started during the month of May in some species, but in most of the species flowering occurs during June to late July and it goes up to early August (Nautiyal et al., 2001). Jennifer A. Dunne et al. (2003) reported that in experimental condition, increasing 2Â °C average soil temperature during the growing season for every two weeks of earlier snowmelt flowering time is advanced by 11 day in the sub-alpine region. Senescence at community level was gradually starts from July to September depending on the growth cycle of the plant species in Central Himalaya (Nautiyal et al., 2001). However in a study conducted by Zhang and Welker (1996) in Tibetan Tundra alpine the community senescence, which actually starts in September was postponed until October under warmer condition and stimulates the growth of grasses. It indicates that the warmer condition as result of increase CO2 enrichment extend the growing period and increase in the grass productivity and dis tribution may suppress the growth of forbs, shrubs (Zhang and Welker, 1996), similarly the valuable medicinal plants also affected (Ramakrishnan et al., 2003). It is possible that timber productivity in the high altitudes/ longitudes could increase as result of climate change, but it could take decades to occur and the newly form forests habitats are likely to retain lower level of native biodiversity due to loss of species that are unable to cope and some species will become more abundant and widely distributed (Alward et. al., 1999) Biotic invasion is another important cause of change in the geographical distribution of the plant species, which is derived or accelerated by the global change. Elevated CO2 might enhance the long-term success and dominance of exotic grasses and their shift in species composition mainly driven by global change has potential to accelerate fire cycle and may reduce biodiversity (Smith et al, 2000). The water use efficiency due to increase atmospheric CO2 can allow increase in potential distribution of Acacia nilotica spp. indica in Australia and increase temperature favour its reproductive life cycle (Kriticos et al, 2003). As the glaciers are receding at a fast rate the newly formed moraine belt is an excellent area to study the invasion of plants from the adjacent mountains and pastures.In recent several land uses and land covers of the high altitude is eroded due to the glacier melting, avalanches and land slides, which favour to extend the distribution of Polygonum polystachyum, a fast growing herb, is mostly found on freshly eroded slopes, past camping sites, river banks and avalanche tracks (Kala et. al., 1998). The other successful invaders found in these habitats are species of Lonicera and Berberis followed by Rosa and Ephedra. Increase temperature may results higher pathogen survival rate and most of the plant species will be severely threatened due to insect, pest and fungal disease. To the changing climate, plants can respond following possible ways firstly no change in their species composition but change in productivity and biogeochemical cycle. Secondly, evolutionary adaptation to the new climatic condition either through plasticity (i.e. shift in phenology) or through genetic response. Followed by emigration to the new areas, as warming observed in the alpine has been associated with upward movement of some plant taxa by 1-4 meter per decade on mountain tops and loss of some taxa that formally were restricted to higher altitude (Grabherr et.al., 1994). Ultimately, they may undergo extinction (Bawa and Dayanandan 1998, Ramakrishnan et al.2003). Most of the plant species changes over time through the process of succession, with pioneer species preparing the way for others, identifying the species present, the physical forms plant takes and the area they occupied are the way for observing change. All the changes involve dynamic and that are difficult or impossi ble to predict, natural ecosystems in this regard serve as a kind of natural laboratory, where natural mechanisms of change such as change in climatic condition and change in the feature of physical and biological systems observe practically. Appropriate management strategies need to developed in such a way that it may have to find a new balance between traditional conservation and maintenance of biodiversity and other ecosystem functioning. Effect on the vegetation: Upward movement of the vegetation belt. It result change in the pattern of structure and distribution of many valuable plant species, Reduction in the area of severely sensitive ecosystem like high altitude pastures, snow cover peaks and important glaciers. Changes in the phenology of some plant species, which include change in time of flowering and seed formation. Changes in the habitat, which is favourable for new alien weedy and invasive species. Increases fire risk in the sub-temperate and temperate dry deciduous and pine forests. Increases productivity of some grass species from the high altitude regions. Adverse impact on the timber production of forest. Effect on the agro-system: Changes the pattern and time of cropping. Shortening the maturity period of some winter crops, which are traditionally important constituent of mountain agriculture. Increase in the pathogen survival rate and crops are more susceptible to pest, insect and fungal diseases. Decline in the yield productivity of some traditional crops; whereas increasing temperature may also be favour the productivity crops like wheat. Decline in the yield of some horticultural fruits which needs chilling effect for their fruit development as seen in case of Apple fruit production. Uncertain high precipitation leads to destruction of crop productivity during flowering, seed formation and maturation time. Effect on Physical system: Accelerate intensity of glacier melting. Reduces area under snow cover and changes the time of snowmelt and snowfall at high-elevated ecosystems. Adverse impact on the seasonal runoff, freshwater availability. Increases the incident of landslides in mountains, drought condition and sever flood condition at lowland regions. Soil properties and process like organic matter decomposition, leaching and soil-water relation were influenced by increase temperature. Socio-economic conditions of the humankind severely affected: Reduction in the area of pasture adversely affect the local pastoral economy, as most of the local livestock of the transhumant and adjoining lowland peoples depends on the high altitude pastures in Garhwal in the summer season. Impact on the timber, medicinal plants and agriculture in the high altitude region in some extent gives negative results to the related industries. Economy through the hydropower generation is affected. Change in the social culture of the peoples living at high altitude regions, i.e. the time of the migration of the transhumant in Garhwal in recent affected due to the adverse climatic conditions. Which also affect their source of economy like agriculture, wool based occupation etc. Changes were also seen in the health conditions of the people living in high altitude, peoples of these regions now more worried about the heat stresses, vector borne diseases, respiratory, eye disorder etc. Status of many endangered wildlife fauna in the Himalayan region affected, and changes in the behavioural and seasonal migration of the animal species can be possible. Table: Distribution of some major plant species at different altitudinal belt of Garhwal Himalaya. Altitude (m asl) Plant species 500- 1400 Shrubs: Zizyphus xylopyrus, Woodfordia fructicosa, Trees: Rhododendron arboreum, Shorea robusta, Dalbergia sisso, Acacia catechu, Adina cardifolia, Terminalia, Cassia fistula, Mallotus philippensis, Bombax ceiba.Agele, 1500-2400 Herbs: Clematis montana, Anemone rivularis, A. obturiloba, Ranunculus hirtellus, Thalictrum chelidonii,Barbarea vulgaris, Silene indica, Malvia verticillata, Geraanium nepalense, Fragaria indica, Potentilla fulgens Epilobium pulustre,Bupleurum falcatum, Aster peduncularis, A. thomsonii, , Gentiana aprica etc. Shrubs: Prunus cornuta, Rosa macrophylla, Zizyphus xylopyrus, Woodfordia fructicosa Trees: Rhododendron arboreum, Shorea robusta, Dalbergia sisso, Acacia catechu, Pinus roxburghii,P. wallichiana, Quercus leucotricophora, Q. semecarpifolia, Adina cardifolia, 2500- 3400 Herbs: Anemone rivularis, A. obturiloba, Ranunculus hirtellus, Thalictrum chelidonii, T. minus, T. elegans, Aquilegiaa pubiflora, Caltha palustris Clematis montana, Clematis barbellata, Delphinium vestitum, Podophyllum hexandrum, Corydalis cornuta, Arabis nova, Viola canescens, Silene edgeworthii, S. Indica, Stellaria monosperma, Geranium collinum, G. himalayense, Trigonella emodi, Geum roylei, Potentilla fruticosa, P. fulgens, P. gelida, P. leuconota, P. polyphylla etc. Grasse Sedge: Carex cruciata, Agrostis pilosula,Poa supina, P. alpina, Danthonia. Shrubs: Cotoneaster macrophylla, Cotoneaster acuminatus, Lonicera, Salix, Rubus foliolosus, Spiraea bella, Berberis glaucocarpa, Myricaria bracteata, Skimmia laaureola, Astragallus candolleanus, Rosa macrophylla. Ribes himalense, Trees: Betula utilis, Taxus baccata, Rhododendron campanulatum, Alnus nitida, A. nepalensis, Abies pindrow, Cedrus deodara, Pinus wallichiana, Acer ceasium, Junipers 3500-4400 Herbs: Cypridium elegans*, C. himalaicum, Epipogium aphyllum, Dactylorrhiza hatagirea, Listera tenuis, Neottianthe secundiflora, Aconitum balfouri, A. falconeri, A. heterophyllum, A. violaceum, Ranunculus pulchellus, Thalictrum alpinum, Podophyllum hexandrum, Acer caesium*, Meconopsis aculeate, Corydalis sikkimensis, Megacarpaea polyandra, Astragallus himalayanus, Nardostachys graandiflora*, Picrorhiza kurrooa*, Pleurospermum angelicoides, Saussurea costus*, S. obvallata, Angelica glauca, Ribes griffithii, Lonicera asperifolia, Waldhemia tomentosa, Primula glomerata, Arnebia benthamii, Geranium pratense, Impatiens thomsonii, I. racemosa, Dioscorea deltoidea*, Allium humile, A. stracheyi*, A. wallichi, Clintonia udensis, Thamnocalamus falconeri, Orobanche alba, Sedum ewersii, S. heterodontum,Pimpnella diversifolia, Morina longifolia Grasse Sedge: Elymus thomsonii, Agrostis munroana, Calamagrostis emodensis, Danthonia cachemyriana, Festuca polycolea, Poa pagophila, Stipa roylei, Carex infuscate, C. nivalis, Kobresia royleana, K. duthei etc. Shrubs: Cotoneaster duthiana, Cotoneaster acuminatus Hippophae tibetana, Rosa sericea, Sorbus macrophylla, S. ursine, Rhododendron anthopogon, Trees: Sorbus aucuparia, Cedrus deodara, Betulla utilis, 4500- above Herbs: Oxygraphis glacialis, Ranunculus pulchellus,Corydalis bowerii, Alyssum canescens,Draba altaica, Silene gonosperma, Potentilla sericea, Sedum bouverii, Saussurea obvallata, S. simpsoniana, Christolea himalayensis Literature cited Rau, M. A. (1975). High altitude flowering plants of west Himalaya. BSI, Howrah, India, pp.214. Singh, D. K. and Hajra, P. K., in Changing Perspectives of Biodiversity Status in the Himalaya (eds Gujral, G. S. and Sharma, V.), British Council Division, British High Commission, Publ. Wildlife Youth Services, New Delhi, 1996, pp. 23-38. Dunne, J.A., Harte, J. and Taylor, K. (2003). Sub alpine Meadow Flowering Phenology Responses To Climate Change: Integrating Experimental And Gradient Methods, Ecological Monographs 73 (1), pp. 69-86. IPCC (2001). Climate Change-2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Kriticos, D.J., Sutherst, R.W., Brown, J.K., Adkings, S.W. and Maywald, G.F. (2003) Climate Change and The Potential Distribution of an Invasive Alien Plant: Acacia nilotica ssp.indica in Australia, Journal of Applied Ecology, 40; 111-124. Nautiyal, B.P., Prakash, V and Nautiyal, M.C. (2000). Structure And Diversity Pattern Along An Altitudinal Gradient In An Alpine Meadow Of Madhyamaheshwer, Garhwal Himalaya, India. Indian Journal of Environmental Science 4(I). 39- 48. Nautiyal, M.C., Nautiyal, B.P. and Prakash, V. (2001). Phenology And Growth Form Distribution In An Alpine Pasture At Tungnath, Garhwal Himalaya. Mountain Research and Development, Vol. 21, No. 2, 177-183. Price, M.V. and Waser, N.M. (2000). Responses of sub alpine meadow vegetation to four year of experimental warming. Ecological Applicati Alpine Plant Biodiversity in the Central Himalayas Alpine Plant Biodiversity in the Central Himalayas Alpine Plant Biodiversity in the Central Himalayan Region: Perspective of Global Climate Change Summary Increase in surface temperature at global scale has already affected a diverse set of physical and biological systems in many parts of the world and if it increases at this rapid rate then the condition would be worst one could have ever thought off. Garhwal Himalaya, major part of the great Himalayan mountainous system is also much sensitive and vulnerable to the local, regional and global changing climate. Due to strong altitudinal gradient, varied climatic conditions and diverse set of floral and faunal composition, the impact of climate change seems to be much higher. This paper highlights some important features of the changing pattern of vegetational composition, distribution and impact of climate change on the phenological aspect of major alpine plant species present in the Garhwal Himalayan region. It also shows cumulative changes, which operate at local level but are globally pervasive. These cumulative changes include change in the land cover/ land use and other anthropogen ic activities, which are related to the climate change. Overall biodiversity in the Himalayan region has been depleted as the consequences of complex and multitude pressure of climate change. The depleted biodiversity has indirectly affected the socio-economic development of the local communities on which their sustenance depends and is inherently critical to the consideration and management of natural resource. Introduction Plant diversity and Status The varied altitudinal, climatic and topographical conditions in the Himalaya results in different types of microhabitats. Geographic isolation, glaciations, evolution and migration of the species in the past all together have contributed to the high level of biodiversity in this mountain system. As per genetic, species and ecosystem level resources, Himalaya is one of the hotspots of biodiversity in the world, which represents about one-tenth of the worlds known species of high altitude plant and animal species. Some parts in the Himalayan region are center for origin of many crops and fruit species and are important source of gene for their wild relatives. The floral diversity of this region shows assemblage of many endemic and exotic species of plants from the adjoining regions. A large number of western Himalayan flora in the Garhwal Kumaon region seems to have been invaded from Tibet, western China and adjoining north-east Asia (Rau, 1975). In the present scenario biodiversity seems to have been depleted in these regions due to land degradation, habitat fragmentation, increasing population pressure, over exploitation of bio-resources and finally due to the changing pattern of the climate. Nearly 10% of flowering plants are listed under various categories of threatened species. Red Data Book of Indian plants listed about 620 threatened species, of which, 28 are presumed extinct, 124 endangered, 81 vulnerable, 160 rare and 34 insufficiently known (Nayar and Sastry, 1987, 1988), however, Red list of threatened plants indicates 19 species as extinct. Among others, 1236 species are listed as threatened, of which, 41 taxa are possibly extinct, 152 endangered, 102 vulnerable, 251 rare and 690 of indeterminate status (IUCN, 1997). From the Himalayan region the important plant species included in threatened categories are mostly the valuable medicinal and aromatic plants, which, support the economic condition and health care sys tem of the local communities. It is well known that, in the context of the present scenario of climate change especially due to global warming many of the high-elevated ecosystems are severely sensitive and vulnerable. Their fragility may accelerate the changes occurring in their composition and structure to the slight variations in climatic factors. These regions include glacier, alpine pasture/ meadows and timber line ecosystem, which are the important source of the seasonal runoff, freshwater, valuable medicinal and aromatic plants, grazing land, source of timber and wild edibles for the mankind. Future scenario of climate change: According to the Third Assessment Report of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2001, average global temperature close to the earths surface has increased by 0.6 Â °C Â ± 0.2Â ° C since 19th century mainly due to the emission of CO2. If human beings do not act to reduce the present level of CO2 there will be additional increment in temperature of 1.4Â ° C to 5.8Â ° C in the next 40 100 year. Current information available on the pattern of future climate change through General Circulation Models (GCMs) suggested that the annual mean warming would increase about 3Â °C in the decade of 2050s and about 5Â °C in decade of the 2080s over the land region of Asia. Precipitation would increase annually about 7% and 11% in decades of 2050s and 2080s respectively. There would be a decline in the summer precipitation that seems likely to be over the central part of arid and semi-arid Asia. GCM also showed high uncertainty in future projection of winter and summer precipitati on over south Asia, because much of tropical Asian climate is noticeably associated with the annual monsoon cycle. In Central Himalayan region, through the assessment of people perception it is interpreted that, climate change resulted in the increase in warming, decline in rainfall during March- May, high rainfall during Aug- Sept instead of normal peak in July- Aug, decline in the snowfall intensity and winter precipitation in Jan-Feb instead of Dec-Jan (Saxena et al., 2004). This scenario can hardly trigger to think about the changing pattern of climate or its negative and positive impacts at local, regional and global level. Although assessment of future climate change scenario through some of scientific models needs a better infrastructure and high technological inputs, specific impact of climate change on different ecosystems can be discerned by comprehensive studies on long term monitoring of the different aspects of ecosystem which is lacking in the Indian context especially in the Garhwal Himalayan region due to poor infrastructure and management practices. So, as per as need concern in these remote areas the assessment of impact on the natural resources in future climate changes can be done through the site-specific sensitivity analysis and it can be related to the traditional knowledges of the peoples living in this particular region of the Himalaya. Sensitivity analysis would help to assess what will be happen if various climatic variables changed, and analysis also evaluates the positive or negative impacts of changing climate on the natural resources. This assessment would help us to make the l ocal communities realize the importance of conservation and management practice so that the endangered and threatened species could be saved from becoming extinct. Assessment of vulnerability and adaptive capacity of the various ecosystems and to develop indigenous knowledge based coping mechanism are important to determine the impact of climate change. This also links the ecological processes to the social processes and appreciates the relationship between the biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. Climate change: Impact on different vegetation zone Natural ecosystems at high elevations are much more sensitive to the climatic variations (Ramakrishnan et al., 2003) or global warming then the managed systems. Their sensitivity is prominently attributed to their limited productivity during snow-free growing season (Price et al., 2000), low dispersal capability, geographically localized, genetically impoverished, highly specialized and slow reproducing ability of the high altitude plants (McNeely, 1990; WWF, 2003). As a consequence of global warming the present distribution of species in high altitude ecosystems projected to shift higher as results of upward altitudinal movement of the vegetation belts. Although the rate of vegetation change is expected to be slow and colonization success would depend on the ability of adaptation and interaction of the plant species with the climate and other associated species, weeds, exotic and invasive species. Their success also depends on their ecological niche width and their role in the ecosy stem functioning. Increase in the temperature would result competition between such species and new arrivals. As the result, species which have wide ecological tolerance have an advantage to adapt and those which are at the edge of range, genetically impoverished, poor dispersal ability and reproducer are under the threshold of extinction. A likely impact of climate change is also observed over the phenological aspect of vegetation in the alpine, sub alpine and timberline zone. Changes in the pattern of snowfall and snowmelt in these mountain regions and increase in mean annual surface temperature has pronounce impact on the date and time of the flowering and other phenophases of certain valuable, keystone species of plants. Earlier snowmelt simulate early flowering in some early growing plants and possibly increase in surface temperature may extend the growing period and productivity of certain grass species in the cooler climatic region. There is a gradual decrease in the growing period from timberline to the snow line, Rawat and Pangtey, (1987) reported about 20 weeks growing period near timberline and barely 4-6 weeks above 5000 m asl. Thus, increase in the average temperature due to global warming the growing period of the vegetation would be seems to extend at high altitudes. Evidences of climate change through p eople perception in Garhwal Himalaya reveals that increase in the warming results decline in the yield of apple fruits and shortening the maturity period of winter crops, whereas, the production of cash crops like potato, peas and kidney beans under warm condition increases. Change in rainfall pattern, snowfall intensity will increase large-scale mortality and damage to the crops, which are close to the maturity on the other hand, Barley and wheat crop production is severely affected due to winter precipitation in months of Jan- Feb (Saxena et al., 2004). Vulnerability of different vegetation belts in the Garhwal Himalaya. Dominant tree species in the low and mid altitude zone have a wider range of distribution. Shorea robusta the climax species of lower elevation is distributed over moist to dry deciduous bio-climates in central India where temperature is much higher while rainfall is quite low. Quercus spp. the climax species at mid elevation is also distributed over a wide range (1100- 1800m) The mid altitude which is dominated by broad leaves and coniferous forest (Rao, 1994) mainly species of Quercus spp. and Pinus spp. on response to the warming may be replaced by the species like Shorea robusta and Terminalia spp. Warming also increases the chance of greater fire risk in dry or moist deciduous forests, these impacts on the forest can directly influence the local livelihood based on fuel and fodder (Ramakrishnan et al. 2003). Rhododendron arboreum is a very prominent forest species because of its red flowers covering almost the whole canopy. At higher elevations this species used to attain peak flowering stage in February / March but now due to warming flowering time in this species seems to shift in the months of January/February. The phenological calendar at lower altitude has thus shifted to the higher altitudes. Exact times of leaf fall, flushing, flowering and fruiting may vary depending upon the elevation indicating sensitivity of phenophases to temperature and moisture stress regime. Flowering and fruiting start earlier about a month with increase in elevation by 600 m (increase in temperature by 2.4 degree C) in Rhododendron arboreum, Prunus cerasoides, Myrica esculenta, Pyrus Pashia and Reinwardtia indica in Central Himalaya. Leafless period in deciduous species like Aesculus indica and Alnus nepalensis is longer at higher altitude as compared to lower altitude. At higher elevation (1500-3300m) i n Central Himalaya, evergreen and winter deciduous species occur equally across the elevation/temperature gradient. All across the elevation / temperature gradient, majority of tree species show vernal flowering. Species showing vernal flowering (before 15 June) increased in frequency and those with aestival flowering (between 15 June 15 September) decreased with increase in annual temperature drown based on the elevation gradient. Thus, change in the temperature would affect flowering and fruiting time of different species or also induce change in species composition. Vegetation of the timberline in different parts of world not only differs in terms of species composition but also exhibit different types of species (Crawford, 1989). In some regions the timberline represents exclusively evergreen conifers while in some it represents totally deciduous broad-leaved trees (Purohit, 2003). In the central Himalaya the Betula utilis, Abies pindrow and Rhododendron campanulatum, are the native species of timberline (Rawal and Pangtey, 1993), and have a complex, spatial habitat and reservoir of large number of medicinal and aromatic plants and wild edibles. During recent past, timberline, the most prominent ecological boundary in the Himalaya where the sub-alpine forests terminates, has been identified as sensitive zone to environmental change and could be effectively modeled / monitored for future climate change processes. The species from tree-line have a narrow range of distribution, as temperature optima for most of these species is higher than the temperature in their natural habitats, warming will be expected to promote their growth but they may be threatened if they fail to compete with the changing climatic conditions (Saxena et al., 2004). Due to the over exploitation and changing global climatic condition many of the medicinal and aromatic plants in and around the timberline shrunk in size and distribution from their natural habitats and some of them are listed rare, threatened and endangered. Besides, the herbs some tree species of the timberline across the western Himalaya viz. Taxus baccata, Betula utilis etc. are also facing sever threats of depletion (Purohit, 2003). Most of the species valued by local communities have a poor soil seed bank, there could be large-scale local extinction of these species if seed production on a landscape scale decline (Saxena et al., 2004). Swan (1967) identified two parts of the alpine region i.e. above timberline (Lower alpine zone; 300 -4000 masl) and higher alpine zone (4000 masl snowline). Grasses and sedges are dominating members of alpine vegetation at lower altitude but they are characteristically replaced by non- grassy dwarf plant species at higher altitude near snowline. The area immediate above timberline and zone of stunted trees shrubs marks the alpine scrub. The vegetation of the lower alpine zone consists of dwarf shrubs, cushionoid herbs, grasses and sedges, Salix, Rosa, Lonicera, Ribes, Cotoneaster and Berberis etc. form the major shrub species at lower alpine zone (Kala et. al., 1998). The herbaceous flora of this zone represent spectacular array of multicolored flowers and include many short period growing cycle plant species. The major herbs of this zone are Potentilla, Geranium, Fritillaria, Lilium, Corydalis, Cyananthus, Anemone, Ranunculus, and Impatiens etc. The vegetation of the higher alpine zone is rather sparse, dotted with moraines, boulders and rocky slopes forming suitable habitat for the patches of shrubs e.g. Rhododendron lepidotum, Juniperus spp. Betula utilis and many species of colourful flowering plants, grasses and sedge etc. In the alpine with the onset of summer, the physical condition of the every patches of ground undergoes constant change, this is the root cause for the instability and succession of plants. Another feature of alpine plant distribution is that in the same habitat one could see the growth of several related or unrelated species and only one species dominate in the entire habitat almost to the exclusion of the other species. This difference may be due to the Physico- chemical properties of the soil. Initiation of growing season depends on the intensity of snowfall in the proceeding season and start of the melting of snow during spring (April May). In alpine region flowering is started during the month of May in some species, but in most of the species flowering occurs during June to late July and it goes up to early August (Nautiyal et al., 2001). Jennifer A. Dunne et al. (2003) reported that in experimental condition, increasing 2Â °C average soil temperature during the growing season for every two weeks of earlier snowmelt flowering time is advanced by 11 day in the sub-alpine region. Senescence at community level was gradually starts from July to September depending on the growth cycle of the plant species in Central Himalaya (Nautiyal et al., 2001). However in a study conducted by Zhang and Welker (1996) in Tibetan Tundra alpine the community senescence, which actually starts in September was postponed until October under warmer condition and stimulates the growth of grasses. It indicates that the warmer condition as result of increase CO2 enrichment extend the growing period and increase in the grass productivity and dis tribution may suppress the growth of forbs, shrubs (Zhang and Welker, 1996), similarly the valuable medicinal plants also affected (Ramakrishnan et al., 2003). It is possible that timber productivity in the high altitudes/ longitudes could increase as result of climate change, but it could take decades to occur and the newly form forests habitats are likely to retain lower level of native biodiversity due to loss of species that are unable to cope and some species will become more abundant and widely distributed (Alward et. al., 1999) Biotic invasion is another important cause of change in the geographical distribution of the plant species, which is derived or accelerated by the global change. Elevated CO2 might enhance the long-term success and dominance of exotic grasses and their shift in species composition mainly driven by global change has potential to accelerate fire cycle and may reduce biodiversity (Smith et al, 2000). The water use efficiency due to increase atmospheric CO2 can allow increase in potential distribution of Acacia nilotica spp. indica in Australia and increase temperature favour its reproductive life cycle (Kriticos et al, 2003). As the glaciers are receding at a fast rate the newly formed moraine belt is an excellent area to study the invasion of plants from the adjacent mountains and pastures.In recent several land uses and land covers of the high altitude is eroded due to the glacier melting, avalanches and land slides, which favour to extend the distribution of Polygonum polystachyum, a fast growing herb, is mostly found on freshly eroded slopes, past camping sites, river banks and avalanche tracks (Kala et. al., 1998). The other successful invaders found in these habitats are species of Lonicera and Berberis followed by Rosa and Ephedra. Increase temperature may results higher pathogen survival rate and most of the plant species will be severely threatened due to insect, pest and fungal disease. To the changing climate, plants can respond following possible ways firstly no change in their species composition but change in productivity and biogeochemical cycle. Secondly, evolutionary adaptation to the new climatic condition either through plasticity (i.e. shift in phenology) or through genetic response. Followed by emigration to the new areas, as warming observed in the alpine has been associated with upward movement of some plant taxa by 1-4 meter per decade on mountain tops and loss of some taxa that formally were restricted to higher altitude (Grabherr et.al., 1994). Ultimately, they may undergo extinction (Bawa and Dayanandan 1998, Ramakrishnan et al.2003). Most of the plant species changes over time through the process of succession, with pioneer species preparing the way for others, identifying the species present, the physical forms plant takes and the area they occupied are the way for observing change. All the changes involve dynamic and that are difficult or impossi ble to predict, natural ecosystems in this regard serve as a kind of natural laboratory, where natural mechanisms of change such as change in climatic condition and change in the feature of physical and biological systems observe practically. Appropriate management strategies need to developed in such a way that it may have to find a new balance between traditional conservation and maintenance of biodiversity and other ecosystem functioning. Effect on the vegetation: Upward movement of the vegetation belt. It result change in the pattern of structure and distribution of many valuable plant species, Reduction in the area of severely sensitive ecosystem like high altitude pastures, snow cover peaks and important glaciers. Changes in the phenology of some plant species, which include change in time of flowering and seed formation. Changes in the habitat, which is favourable for new alien weedy and invasive species. Increases fire risk in the sub-temperate and temperate dry deciduous and pine forests. Increases productivity of some grass species from the high altitude regions. Adverse impact on the timber production of forest. Effect on the agro-system: Changes the pattern and time of cropping. Shortening the maturity period of some winter crops, which are traditionally important constituent of mountain agriculture. Increase in the pathogen survival rate and crops are more susceptible to pest, insect and fungal diseases. Decline in the yield productivity of some traditional crops; whereas increasing temperature may also be favour the productivity crops like wheat. Decline in the yield of some horticultural fruits which needs chilling effect for their fruit development as seen in case of Apple fruit production. Uncertain high precipitation leads to destruction of crop productivity during flowering, seed formation and maturation time. Effect on Physical system: Accelerate intensity of glacier melting. Reduces area under snow cover and changes the time of snowmelt and snowfall at high-elevated ecosystems. Adverse impact on the seasonal runoff, freshwater availability. Increases the incident of landslides in mountains, drought condition and sever flood condition at lowland regions. Soil properties and process like organic matter decomposition, leaching and soil-water relation were influenced by increase temperature. Socio-economic conditions of the humankind severely affected: Reduction in the area of pasture adversely affect the local pastoral economy, as most of the local livestock of the transhumant and adjoining lowland peoples depends on the high altitude pastures in Garhwal in the summer season. Impact on the timber, medicinal plants and agriculture in the high altitude region in some extent gives negative results to the related industries. Economy through the hydropower generation is affected. Change in the social culture of the peoples living at high altitude regions, i.e. the time of the migration of the transhumant in Garhwal in recent affected due to the adverse climatic conditions. Which also affect their source of economy like agriculture, wool based occupation etc. Changes were also seen in the health conditions of the people living in high altitude, peoples of these regions now more worried about the heat stresses, vector borne diseases, respiratory, eye disorder etc. Status of many endangered wildlife fauna in the Himalayan region affected, and changes in the behavioural and seasonal migration of the animal species can be possible. Table: Distribution of some major plant species at different altitudinal belt of Garhwal Himalaya. Altitude (m asl) Plant species 500- 1400 Shrubs: Zizyphus xylopyrus, Woodfordia fructicosa, Trees: Rhododendron arboreum, Shorea robusta, Dalbergia sisso, Acacia catechu, Adina cardifolia, Terminalia, Cassia fistula, Mallotus philippensis, Bombax ceiba.Agele, 1500-2400 Herbs: Clematis montana, Anemone rivularis, A. obturiloba, Ranunculus hirtellus, Thalictrum chelidonii,Barbarea vulgaris, Silene indica, Malvia verticillata, Geraanium nepalense, Fragaria indica, Potentilla fulgens Epilobium pulustre,Bupleurum falcatum, Aster peduncularis, A. thomsonii, , Gentiana aprica etc. Shrubs: Prunus cornuta, Rosa macrophylla, Zizyphus xylopyrus, Woodfordia fructicosa Trees: Rhododendron arboreum, Shorea robusta, Dalbergia sisso, Acacia catechu, Pinus roxburghii,P. wallichiana, Quercus leucotricophora, Q. semecarpifolia, Adina cardifolia, 2500- 3400 Herbs: Anemone rivularis, A. obturiloba, Ranunculus hirtellus, Thalictrum chelidonii, T. minus, T. elegans, Aquilegiaa pubiflora, Caltha palustris Clematis montana, Clematis barbellata, Delphinium vestitum, Podophyllum hexandrum, Corydalis cornuta, Arabis nova, Viola canescens, Silene edgeworthii, S. Indica, Stellaria monosperma, Geranium collinum, G. himalayense, Trigonella emodi, Geum roylei, Potentilla fruticosa, P. fulgens, P. gelida, P. leuconota, P. polyphylla etc. Grasse Sedge: Carex cruciata, Agrostis pilosula,Poa supina, P. alpina, Danthonia. Shrubs: Cotoneaster macrophylla, Cotoneaster acuminatus, Lonicera, Salix, Rubus foliolosus, Spiraea bella, Berberis glaucocarpa, Myricaria bracteata, Skimmia laaureola, Astragallus candolleanus, Rosa macrophylla. Ribes himalense, Trees: Betula utilis, Taxus baccata, Rhododendron campanulatum, Alnus nitida, A. nepalensis, Abies pindrow, Cedrus deodara, Pinus wallichiana, Acer ceasium, Junipers 3500-4400 Herbs: Cypridium elegans*, C. himalaicum, Epipogium aphyllum, Dactylorrhiza hatagirea, Listera tenuis, Neottianthe secundiflora, Aconitum balfouri, A. falconeri, A. heterophyllum, A. violaceum, Ranunculus pulchellus, Thalictrum alpinum, Podophyllum hexandrum, Acer caesium*, Meconopsis aculeate, Corydalis sikkimensis, Megacarpaea polyandra, Astragallus himalayanus, Nardostachys graandiflora*, Picrorhiza kurrooa*, Pleurospermum angelicoides, Saussurea costus*, S. obvallata, Angelica glauca, Ribes griffithii, Lonicera asperifolia, Waldhemia tomentosa, Primula glomerata, Arnebia benthamii, Geranium pratense, Impatiens thomsonii, I. racemosa, Dioscorea deltoidea*, Allium humile, A. stracheyi*, A. wallichi, Clintonia udensis, Thamnocalamus falconeri, Orobanche alba, Sedum ewersii, S. heterodontum,Pimpnella diversifolia, Morina longifolia Grasse Sedge: Elymus thomsonii, Agrostis munroana, Calamagrostis emodensis, Danthonia cachemyriana, Festuca polycolea, Poa pagophila, Stipa roylei, Carex infuscate, C. nivalis, Kobresia royleana, K. duthei etc. Shrubs: Cotoneaster duthiana, Cotoneaster acuminatus Hippophae tibetana, Rosa sericea, Sorbus macrophylla, S. ursine, Rhododendron anthopogon, Trees: Sorbus aucuparia, Cedrus deodara, Betulla utilis, 4500- above Herbs: Oxygraphis glacialis, Ranunculus pulchellus,Corydalis bowerii, Alyssum canescens,Draba altaica, Silene gonosperma, Potentilla sericea, Sedum bouverii, Saussurea obvallata, S. simpsoniana, Christolea himalayensis Literature cited Rau, M. A. (1975). High altitude flowering plants of west Himalaya. BSI, Howrah, India, pp.214. Singh, D. K. and Hajra, P. K., in Changing Perspectives of Biodiversity Status in the Himalaya (eds Gujral, G. S. and Sharma, V.), British Council Division, British High Commission, Publ. Wildlife Youth Services, New Delhi, 1996, pp. 23-38. Dunne, J.A., Harte, J. and Taylor, K. (2003). Sub alpine Meadow Flowering Phenology Responses To Climate Change: Integrating Experimental And Gradient Methods, Ecological Monographs 73 (1), pp. 69-86. IPCC (2001). Climate Change-2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Kriticos, D.J., Sutherst, R.W., Brown, J.K., Adkings, S.W. and Maywald, G.F. (2003) Climate Change and The Potential Distribution of an Invasive Alien Plant: Acacia nilotica ssp.indica in Australia, Journal of Applied Ecology, 40; 111-124. Nautiyal, B.P., Prakash, V and Nautiyal, M.C. (2000). Structure And Diversity Pattern Along An Altitudinal Gradient In An Alpine Meadow Of Madhyamaheshwer, Garhwal Himalaya, India. Indian Journal of Environmental Science 4(I). 39- 48. Nautiyal, M.C., Nautiyal, B.P. and Prakash, V. (2001). Phenology And Growth Form Distribution In An Alpine Pasture At Tungnath, Garhwal Himalaya. Mountain Research and Development, Vol. 21, No. 2, 177-183. Price, M.V. and Waser, N.M. (2000). Responses of sub alpine meadow vegetation to four year of experimental warming. Ecological Applicati